Dream: Electrical Engineering and Hard Work

Some people may say that dreams are hard to follow and it's impossible to be able to achieve them. But, that's actually not true. The fact is that dreams are the most amazing things in life; we all love to dream, love to hope and love to see our dreams come true. Our dreams are in our hands. We are the ones who control them; we are the ones who can make them either come true or not. In the article â€Å"A Vision of Stars, Grounded in the Dust of Rural Indian,† Somini Sengupta talks about Anupam Kumar, an Indian boy who lives and grows up in a poor family but has a big dream. He wants to works at NASA. In the article, the author describes the road to fulfill his dream as well as the difficulties he met such as poverty, difficulty gaining acceptance to go to college, the intensity of competition, and his failure on the first exam. However, Anupam never gives up on his dream and finally achieves his dream with his own determination and hard work as well as support from his parents and his teacher. Like Anupam, I also have my own dreams. My dream is to become a computer engineer because I love technology and I believe that in the future, computers will become indispensable to human life. I will definitely reach my dream because of the support from my mother, my determination and my passion for computers. I will reach my goal thanks to the support from my mother. When I was a child, I was introverted. I hardly left the house and often spent my time in boredom, I did not have a goal and I also did not know what kind of person I would be in the future. Despite all of this, my mother is a person who changed me and helped me determine a goal of my life. My mother is the first person who realized my passion for computers. Whenever we went to my uncle’s house, I always asked him to teach me how to use his computer. At the time, I did not realize that I loved to study computers so much. I thought it was just because of my curiosity, but my mother did not. She saw through my heart and she knew what I needed. Living in Vietnam, computers were outrageously expensive, but my mother worked very hard in other to give me a chance to a new world of technology. Since I have my own computer which I got as a result of a lot of sweat and hard work by of my mother, I feel like a fish returned to the ocean. I became a new person. I studied hard and got good grades and my life became more interesting because I have more friends not only in Vietnam but also all over the world. I think that my life wouldn’t turn a new page if I did not receive my mother’s support. Therefore, I always try my best to reach my dream and deserve my mother’s faith. Determination is one of my qualities which will help me reach my goal and one of the aspects of determination is hard work. I still remember the hard time I had when I tried to use a computer the first time. It was written in English and at that time, English was one of the courses I hated the most in school. But I liked computers more than anything else, so that I decided to study seriously. Every day, I tried to remember and understand ten computer’s vocabulary words. I tried to read book in English one page or two pages a day. That really was a hard time for me. It took me hours to complete two pages with help from a dictionary and I followed it day by day. After three months, I could read more than five pages in an hour because I knew more vocabulary than before. My computer skill also got better and I really enjoyed it. Another aspect of determination is persistence. Persistent people will not give up the things they follow or they believe in even if in front of them are a lot of difficulties. I am one a persistent person. For example, when I was in college, I had a difficult time with a programming course; it was too new for me. I could not understand at all and for that result I got only three points (out of 10) on the first exam. I wasn’t the only one who did badly; almost seventy percent of the students had the same grade like me. For that reason, almost half of the students gave up on that course after two months. But I did not give up so easily. I tried to understand and remember lessons in class. After school, I read a book, practiced at home on the material which our teacher showed us, and read the next lesson for the next day so that when I had a question, I could ask my teacher immediately. I believe that I can do better if I follow the things I believe in. Finally, I passed that course with 8. 5/10 on the final exam, whereas others students had to study again for the next semester. I think that hard work and persistence will still help me in the road to fulfill my dream. Passion for computers is also one of my qualities which will help me reach my goal. Since I knew how interesting computers are. I was excited by this machine. I had so many questions about this machine. I wondered how one machine could do so many things. However, computers were very expensive in the past; it was only for rich people and my family could afford it. My dream looked like impossible at that time, but the passion for computers in me did not let me stop thinking about it and it helped me believe in the future that I will have my own computer. The hope of having my own computer followed me in two years and finally my mother helped me make it come true. Since I have gotten my own computer, I have begun studying seriously; I knew what my dream is and what I need to do to make it come true. I borrowed books from my uncle and read it when I have free time. When I had a problem with my computer, I tried to fix it, but it was useless. My mother had to hire a computer engineer to fix it, and at that time fixing computer was very expensive. Therefore, I learned how to fix the computer by watching the engineer so that I will be able to do this myself in the future. Now, I am learning computers in the U. S. where the first computer was born. I believe that if we really love something we can achieve it by passion and hope. After read the article about Anupam Kumar and the road to fulfill his dream, I have more confident, hope, and power to make my dream come true. I am deeply gratitude my mother who did everything for me so that I have more opportunity to accomplish my dream. My experience with computers has taught me to be patient and persistent and never to give up. This is a lesson I can apply throughout my life – not just for computers.

Essay on Human Behaviour and Social Norms

Running head: HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIAL NORMS Do social norms influence human behaviour? Human behaviour is the response to given stimuli, which are socially and environmentally affected. This response is something that can easily be influenced and shaped through many personal, situational, social, biological, mental factors. In this essay the case of social norms influencing human behaviour will be analyzed using previous studies. Social norms are part of a larger influential scale generally named as social influence.Social influence is the exercise of power that an individual or a group can use on other individuals or society in order to alter their attitudes, behaviours and lead them to a desired direction. Social influence has as an outcome three different behavioural patterns, which are conformity, compliance and obedience. All of them will be discussed, but especially conformity and compliance, which mainly include the influence of social norms on behaviour (Franzoi, 2009; Cia ldini & Goldstein, 2004).Firstly, conformity in general is the action to adapt with the behaviour of the rest of the people due to perceived group pressure. Practically, this means that the way people dress, entertain themselves, protest, work, eat, go on vacations, disclose themselves and substantially anything an individual can occupy himself, is formed by group’s direction and tendencies because the majority of people, if not all of them, try to socialize and be accepted by their society in any possible way.This phenomenon is called conformity and it is an ambiguous question if independence, which indeed is a reality, exists anyway. This happens because people voluntarily direct their independence towards society’s preferences and tendencies in order to feel that they belong somewhere and they have a particular social identity (Franzoi, 2009). The second factor of influence is the compliance and it is has to do with the public and clear acceptance of one’s pe rson to act according to given social direction by the indicated social power. However, compliance can be divided into internal and external.This means that a person can comply with a situation either because someone else indirectly forces him or either because he believes he should act like this. For example, if someone asks his friend to lie in order not to have problems with parents (e. g. cover a sneaking out) but he does it in the name of friendship even if he does not really want it, this is a clear example of external force making you to comply. Internal compliance is the opposite state where personal beliefs and attitudes force you to do something without having any external pressure to do something.This issue is very important because in the case of external compliance, social norms are in a great influential position in contrast to internal compliance where personal beliefs mainly take place on the decisional process (Franzoi, 2009). On the other hand obedience is the tota l performance of a given order by social power without any resistance against it or trial to sustain independence. Social power is the available social sources through social acceptance and social status that a person or a group of people can have in order to exercise persuasion and give motivation to make people change or fulfill their requests.Consequently, these three parts of social influence represents the levels of personal accordance to social patterns, authoritarian or not. Specifically, it can be noticed that the level of individual’s independence sets if a situation is more about conformity (unconscious but voluntary acceptance of the norms), or compliance (internal or external acceptance) or obedience (total accordance to social power) (Cook et al. , as cited in Franzoi, 2009; Franzoi, 2009). Focusing more one the aspect of conformity and the influence of social norms, there are specific factors that affect conformity and levels of social norms’ influence on it.These factors can be situational, personal and cultural. Situational factors can be group size, group cohesiveness, and social support. Group size is important because as Asch (1955) found, the larger the group, the bigger the phenomenon of conformity due to social norms. Group cohesiveness makes the group to have greater bonds due to similarity and ability to easily show empathy to each other (Christensen et al. , 2004) and social support is noticed to groups with higher levels of cohesiveness and bonding. On the other hand, there are personal factors ffecting the type of conformity such as self-awareness (ability to understand own self), self-presentation (try to present ideal self in order to conform), personal control (desire to feel that one has control, as a human right, over particular situations) and gender (gender differences- women are more likely to conform) (Franzoi, 2009). Based on all the previously referred material, conformity is totally driven by social norms, n orms that are not written but sometimes are more powerful than law; the way that a person conforms to society affects the level and type of his compliance to society’s requests.For example, if a person has as personal characteristic not to like altering his self-image/ presentation based on society’s preferences due to his intense belief in independence, it is possible that this person will comply more difficult because of external motivation instead of internal. On the other hand, this means that if a person has an internal compliance only to smile to people who knows and not to anybody else due to his belief, this will affect the way that he conforms to the social norm of smiling to people in general in order to be kind.This shows how social norms can affect conformity and consequently compliance and the other way around, respectively. Furthermore, people have a tendency to create and maintain meaningful relationships with other people because they need socializing a s human beings, which is called as affiliation. Affiliation is a good example of internal compliance. This motivation makes the compliance to socializing and dedicating energy and time on building relationships, an internal acceptance for personal growth (Franzoi, 2009; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).Nevertheless, there is the issue of how and when external compliance to social norms such as stereotyping occurs. In particular, Bargh and Chartrand (1999) did a study on automaticity of behaviour and found that when people are unconsciously pre-occupied with e. g. stereotyping words, even if they believe that stereotyping is wrong, they are likely to stereotype because they unconsciously externally comply with the given stimuli. Stereotyping is a form of social norm. People may stereotype in order to protect themselves; for example, filthy aggressive people on the street may be perceived as thieves or criminals.So there are two outcomes on this example. One person may believe that the app earance cannot indicate anything about personal characteristics but in the end he conforms to the social norm and try to avoid him as the other people around him do (external compliance). On the other hand, one may truly believe that these kinds of people are definitely criminals because he might have a bad experience in the past so he avoids him due to his belief (internal compliance to the social norm of avoiding this kind of people) (Franzoi, 2009; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).Rimal and Real (2005) did a study on how perceived norms affect human behaviour with college students in order to investigate intentions to alcohol consumption. They proposed the theory of normative social behaviour that includes three mechanisms: injunctive norms (such as social approval), outcome expectations (such as personal benefits) and group identity (such as similarity). Their hypothesis was that these three mechanisms are able to moderate the influence of social norms on the human behaviour. Indeed, their results showed that these normative mechanisms could predict the intention of alcohol consumption to college students.Consequently, this study is a clear answer to the question whether social norms affect human behaviour. In addition, Rivis and Sheeran (2003) did a study on Theory of planned behaviour in order to find out whether added descriptive norms can be good predictors of human behaviour in the particular model. Their results showed that younger participants and health risk behaviours are greatly related to stronger correlation between intentions of behaviour and descriptive norms; confirming that behaviour is affected by norms.As a conclusion, the general point of view in all these theories and facts is that social norms affect human behaviour through the state of conformity and compliance. Substantially, the intentions of behaviour can be affected either implicitly or explicitly. People conform to the society in order to be accepted and compl y with various social norms that conformity requires through implicit/internal or explicit/external way. Even if personal and situational factors may influence the level of compliance and conformity, people constantly comply with various requests either due to personal beliefs or due to accepting other’s personal beliefs.Word count: 1. 440 References Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 31-35. Bargh, J. A. , & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462-479. Christensen, P. N. , & Rothberger, H. , & Wood, W. , & Maltz, D. C. (2004). Social norms and identity relevance: A motivational approach to normative behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1295-1309. Cialdini, R. B. , & Goldstein, N. J. (2004).Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591-621. Franzoi, S. L. (2009). Social psychology (5th ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill. Rimal, R. N. , & Real, K. (2005). How behaviours are influenced by perceived norms: A test of the theory of normative social behaviour. Communication Research, 32, 389-414. Rivis, A. , & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Current psychology, 22, 218-233.

Johnny Depp as Edward Scissorhands Essay

Johnny Depp, also known as Edward Scissorhands is the main focus of this movie. Edward being an invention â€Å"monster† as some might say, but he also has a kind heart for others. After the inventor â€Å"Father† of Edward died he stayed inclosed in the house, leaving him unfinished him having scissors for hands, he had become socially disconnected. Looking into Edward’s eyes you can tell he’s lost soul being in trapped in a unwanted body. Deserted in this House he calls home all alone until one day, Peg, a woman who sells avon, barges in and takes him with her. Edward gentle but frightened doesn’t know what the world had in store for him. Being alone for as long as Edward was he desired the attention Peg gave him. i honestly think Tim Burtons main focus of this film was to show that you can’t judge a book by its cover, by showing off Edwards unique qualities showing his fascinating personality & loving heart towards others. While easily amazing the neighbors with his shrub trimming and hair cutting skills. Edward falls drastically in love with Peg’s daughter Kim, but, KIm is dating the Jim who is just very hateful to Edward. Jim always pointed out that he could never hold hands with Kim without hurting her, also Edward being so socially disconnected from society.

Compair 3 journal articals about WWII Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Compair 3 journal articals about WWII - Essay Example rld War II† by Susan Smith in 2008, â€Å"Ethics and Airpower in WWII† by Phillip Mellinger in 1994, and â€Å"Moral Ambiguities of the Bombing of Monte Cassino† by Uwe Steenhoff in 2005. During World War II, 60,000 American soldiers were part of the Mustard Gas experiments performed by American Scientists (Smith, 2008).The reason was to prepare America’s troops for chemical warfare. One of the questions during the experimentation was whether or not there was a difference in reaction to mustard gas by different races. These scientists were every day ethical people, but they slipped into this method of experimentation. They felt that it was important in the service of their country. Soldiers felt it was their patriotic duty to participate though most were harassed into volunteering. The United States felt it needed the information to know how to react should the enemy use mustard gas and how to assure that the enemy died, should they have to use it (Smith, 2008). Veterans describe this as a horrible experience and felt that they were never warned about the level of suffering that could occur from this exposure (Smith, 2008). Mustard gas causes severe pain and these men suffered immediate eye and skin injury with blisters all over their bodies. The long term effects for many turned out to be cancer, asthma, emphysema, and blindness. Was this testing ethical? The British bombed many civilian sectors of Germany during World War II. Many great cities were bombed. There are those that believe that this bombing was unethical and immoral. There are those that would argue that any bombing at the time of civilian areas or any other was not only moral but ethical (Garrett, 1994). Garrett, (1994) believes that it was an immoral act. He also believes our own bombing of the Japanese cities with the A-bomb during the same war was immoral and unethical. Was it? Why do we struggle with the ethical viewpoint in this type of case? Monte Cassino was a monastery in World War II.

Lose of Sexual Desire and Scientific Research in I am a Legend Essay

Lose of Sexual Desire and Scientific Research in I am a Legend - Essay Example He seems to lose his sexual desire after dedicating himself to scientific research and chooses his dog to be his companion. He is inclined to bear the task because he believes that it was a mistake done by humans and they have to correct it without blaming God. He says, â€Å"†¦ God did not do this. We did!† (Matheson, 2007). This paper highlights how Robert Neville appears to lose all sexual desire after dedicating himself to scientific research, which is an essential aspect that helps him discover many things regarding human beings. How Neville appears to lose his Sexual Desire After the death of both his wife and daughter, Neville the remains with his German Shepherd dog named Samantha as his companion. He does not seem to be concerned with getting a new lover but instead, he spends his time collecting food and medical supplies in Manhattan or hunting for deer. He also spends time at South Street Seaport sitting on a bench to wait for any survivors as he instructs them through his recorded AM radio broadcasts. His relationship with other people seems are based on searching for a cure for the virus and shows no interests in sexual affairs. He feels that he has to love something but what is best for him is his dog. The author says, â€Å"†¦ he had such a terrible yearning to love something again, and only the dog was such a beautiful ugly dog.† This is evident in his relation to Sam whom they go hunting together. He strictly remains in his goals of searching for a cure and does not engage in romantic discussions with her. During a fight with infected dogs, Sam is bitten and Neville tries to inject her with a strain of his serum but does not succeed in rescuing her. She starts to mutate and he struggles her to death. He is not disturbed by killing her but instead sees the dark seekers as the cause of her death. If he could not have lost his sexual desire, he could be overcome by emotions and show the love he had for her. Instead, he reac ts as if he has lost just a hunting mate and attacks the dark seekers to revenge. He does not show any sign of losing a special person but only a friend. Anna and Ethan trace him through his radio broadcasts and even after arriving he treats them normally. He does not show any strange emotions in dealing with Anna but only strives to deliver the antidote to her. Even after noticing the butterfly tattoo Anna had, and remembering the butterfly shapes his daughter Marley used to make, this does not draw him close to Anna. He is ever dreaming of saving lives. He screams, â€Å"†¦.I can help. I can save you. I can save everybody† (Matheson, 2007). Neville dedicates his life to discover an antidote, which Anna delivers to survivors in the Colony camp. He is busy scientifically experimenting samples and does not divert his attention towards sexual matters. He sacrifices his life to protect Anna and Ethan. His main desire remains to focus on discovering an antidote to rescue the humankind, and not developing any sexual relationships with the females he meets. This is one of the most important aspects of the author because Neville believes that discovery is the only tool that assists in understanding numerous issues surrounding human beings. He remains friendly to everyone as he tells a mannequin, â€Å"†¦ I promised a friend I would say hello to you today† (Matheson, 2007). As numerous things afflict the society and the individuals within the society does not understand, Neville remains the only man alive and this piece offers an insight to many people who either watched the movie or read the novel.

Use of Promissory Estoppel in Business Contracts Essay

Use of Promissory Estoppel in Business Contracts - Essay Example Promissory Estoppels are great ways to avoid injustices in the cases were normal considerations cannot be provided. However Promissory Estoppel has been full of contradictions since they were first mentioned in Section 90 of Restatement of Contracts. They have invoked varied emotions such as they marked the death of contracts or that contract cases will now be decided simply as torts. Promissory Estoppel is still a work in progress. Although Section 90 and 139 which are the basis of promissory Estoppel are brief but the various court cases and judgements have given new meanings to these two sections. Promissory Estoppels is a way to enforce a contract without any consideration (Farber & Matheson, 1985). A normal contract consists of three main components – an offer being made, the offer being accepted and a consideration being given for the offer (Klass, 2010). As an example let us suppose that company A signs a contract with company B to supply 50 tons of rice per month for $50/ton for 5 years. However if the grain prices fall during the contract period and B wants to renegotiate the price to $40/ton then under the normal contract law this can be done in 2 ways – either by giving a consideration such as agreeing to pay for the transportation costs or agreeing to buy more quantity and by annulling the contract and signing a new contract with new terms. However Promissory Estoppels provides an alternate way of doing it without any consideration or annulment. Promissory Estoppels comes into effect when one of the parties has made a promise, the other party has relied on it substantially and when not enforcing a promise will lead to gross injustice to one of the parties. Thus the three main concepts of Promissory Estoppel are a clear and definite promise, substantial reliance on that promise and miscarriage of justice if promise is broken. The origin of the modern concept of Promissory Estoppels can be found in the case of Central London Property Trust Ltd vs. High Tree House Ltd (Farber & Matheson, 1985). The case was regarding raising the rent of a group of flats after the end of the Second World War. The landlord had made a promise that he would take reduced rent from the tenants during the course of the war. However when the war ended in 1945, he wanted the original rent to be restores. In this case the Judge Denning laid down the principals of promissory estoppels by saying that a promise which is intended to be binding is binding as far as it terms apply correctly. This paper discusses the concept of promissory estoppels as applied in USA; the cases of business contracts where relief can be accepted under promissory estoppels and where the claim for relief is likely to be rejected by courts. Bargain Theory of Consideration A contract is a binding agreement between two parties and is the basis for any business transaction between the two parties. Contracts are the heart and soul of all businesses. Some of the contracts are written whereas other may be simply oral or trust based. Before the concept of promissory estoppels was discovered, contracts were based solely on the bargain theory of consideration (Feinman, 1984).According to this theory; a promise is enforceable only if it is supported by a consideration which has been sought for or bargained for by the promisor in exchange for the promise made by him . The Bargain theory also requires mutual consent of the offer which means that a clear offer must be made and accepted by the other party for a contract to be enforceable. In the case of New Zealand Shipping co. Ltd vs. AM Satterthwaite & co Ltd; Lord Wilberforce has clearly stated that offer, acceptance and consideration are requirements for a contract to be valid. These three factors must also be accompanied with no mistake, misrepresentation and duress which can affect the

Cyberbulling Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Cyberbulling - Research Paper Example Unlike traditional bullying, cyberbullying offers anonymity to bullies contributing both to impunity of offenders. Alongside with anonymity, it is the significant distance between bullies and the bullied that lead to crueler actions and more serious consequences. The rise of cyberbullying is caused by technology, especially by the Internet, introduction of which was soon followed by chat rooms. The latter were supplemented by AOL Instant Messenger, a program that allowed users to communicate with each other privately or in public chat rooms for hours. With its development, AOL Instant Messenger allowed creation of group-specific chat rooms. Telecommunication advances also contributed to proliferation of cyberbullying and cell phones in particular. The first generation of these telecommunication devices did not cause the rise of cyberbullyin; the second generation, however, did. The cell phones of the second generation appeared in the 1990s, and then spread widely. In 2010, about seventy-five percent of teenagers in the United States had cell phones, and one third of them sent three thousand messages per month. Today, about seventy-eight percent of teeangers are owners of cell phones (Donegan, 2012). Further development and spread of the Internet as well as the introduction of social networking websites also have fostered cyberbullying. All the social networks allow to create profiles, which include personal information, photos etc., and communicate with other people. Such publication of personal information and distanced communication is dangerous for children because it puts them in the position of either a victim of cyberbullying or an active offender (Donegan, 2012). The relatively short history of cyberbullying is notable for a significant number of suicides committed by victims. One of the most well-known cases is the case of a girl named Maggie Meier. She committed suicide in 2006 after her sister and mother created a fake account

Rabbit-Proof Fence and the Edge of Heaven - Movies Which Depict the Mi Essay

Rabbit-Proof Fence and the Edge of Heaven - Movies Which Depict the Minority Groups in Society - Essay Example In response to the growing fears, special and unique detention centres were built across Australia to keep the mixed-race children from the entire Australian community, which was the dominant culture. In addition, orders were issued to eradicate forcibly half-caste children from their paternal and maternal families. The movies especially the Edge of Heaven shows how prejudice and discrimination take centre stage in the Australian society. It is evident that being prejudiced simply implies holding preconceived attitudes and beliefs about certain cultural practices or group of people in society. The movie shows how people from dominant culture engage in discriminatory practices in order to guard opportunities for themselves by hindering access to those whom they tend to believe do not need or deserve the same treatment as others. As seen in the Rabbit-proof fence, it is evident that during this time, racism in Australian society looked like cancer in that it had no cure and it would have continued were it not for the effort of the three women to fight for justice. However, separation and exclusion are seen all around Australian aborigine children. It is clear that suspicion, fear, and ignorance parting away communities. At the same time, public figures, the media, and heads of states, who are the people supposed to fight and defend pluralist and inclusive societies, initiate attacks on multiculturalism. While this negative outlook may be so widely accepted challenging it seems to be a hard but important task. In the Edge of heaven movie, Ali Aksu thought he had found relief and happiness when he met Yeter a prostitute. He provided her with monthly payments to cease working as a city prostitute and marry him. Considering the fact that she (Yeter) was not from a dominant culture or group, she received threats from Muslims about either accepting the offer or facing the consequences. She decided to take the offer.  Ã‚  

Into the Question of the Art Nature Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Into the Question of the Art Nature - Assignment Example It defines art as works created by artists: paintings, sculptures, etc., which are created to be beautiful or to express important ideas or feelings Painting is the process of applying a pigment, paint or a colour to a surface by use of a brush. In art, painting may be used to mean the action and the result of the action. It is a mode of creative expression and has numerous forms. Paintings can be representational and naturalistic, abstract, photographic, or be loaded with symbolism, narrative content or just emotional in nature. It has the elements of colour tone, intensity and a lot of nontraditional elements (Arnheim, 2009). A sculpture is a branch of visual arts. It is one of the oldest kinds of art, having existed before most of the other art forms. There were durable forms that used carving and modelling, but modernity has led to freedom in the ways that it’s done, in terms of the materials used and the process. Carving involved removal of parts of the material used, whereas modelling involved the addition of the material such as clay. Architecture is the form of art, and arguably a science, that deals with designing of building and non-building materials. It involves a lot of creative manipulation and coordination of technology and materials. We have the ancient architectures forms and the modern forms of architecture, which implies that architecture could also be as old as painting. (Ralph, 1998) Photography is the art and science of creating images. Light or some other electromagnetic radiation is recorded either chemically by use of a light-sensitive material such as a photographic film or electronically by use of an image sensor. A lens is always used to focus the light emitted or reflected from objects into the real image on the light-sensitive part of the camera.   Printmaking is a form of fine art. It is the process of making works of art by printing basically. Prints always have an element of originality. It is possible to create a multiplicity of prints of the same piece.  Ã‚  

UK Government and Measures to Reduce the Alcohol Consume Essay

UK Government and Measures to Reduce the Alcohol Consume - Essay Example The article observes that none of the low-priced alcohol brands would have increased their prices within the new legislations.   Many of these products are on offer on major supermarkets such as Tesco which has such offers as 24 cans of Fosters that goes for a mere 10 pounds or even 3 fifteen packs of Strongbow cider being sold at 20 pounds. The minimum pricing policy is accompanied by VAT additions which the government hopes will help curb the norm of excessive drinking in UK.From this study it is clear that many see that the government efforts at setting minimum prices for alcoholic products will only solve half of the problem because there are many alcohol companies which have the capacity to produce alcoholic beverages at the set price and still rake in millions in profits. All that the legislation is doing to the market is removing any form of competition for the established manufacturers and distributors. Setting minimum prices will not effectively stop people from buying and sometimes, overindulging in alcohol.  In the mixed economy, resources are owned by both the government on behalf of the public, and the private sector.   It is the public sector which intervenes According to economics, the concept of scarcity implies that resources are scarce or limited. The resources that are available are not enough to satisfy the needs of everyone concerned. For instance, if someone’s income is limited, it means that he cannot buy everything that he wants.... All that the legislation is doing to the market is removing any form of competition for the established manufacturers and distributors. Setting minimum prices will not effectively stop people from buying and sometimes, overindulging in alcohol.   2. Explain why, in a mixed economy, the concepts of scarcity and opportunity cost are important for governments. Illustrate your answer with examples. Also explain reasons why governments tax goods like alcohol, cigarettes and petrol. Use economic concepts in your answer. In the mixed economy, resources are owned by both the government on behalf of the public, and the private sector.   It is the public sector which intervenes According to economics, the concept of scarcity implies that resources are scarce or limited. The resources that are available are not enough to satisfy the needs of everyone concerned. For instance, if someone’s income is limited, it means that he cannot buy everything that he wants. Opportunity cost on the other hand is a measure of the cost of a certain choice, or what is refereed in economics to as the next best alternative forgone. For a person whose income is limited, he has to choose between different alternatives so that he can make good use of his limited income (Ward and Forker, 1993). In a mixed economy, opportunity cost is important for governments as it enables them to make strategic decision to control the market in a way that is likely to be more beneficial than the other. The concept of scarcity enables the government to plan and deliver its resources in the way it sees fit in order to meet as many of the market demands as possible. In the mixed

TPA4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

TPA4 - Assignment Example Despite the new proliferation of business information systems has supported the management core functions and other operations such as customer relationship management, accounting and inventory management, service scheduling and billing, supply chain management, contract management, manufacturing and e-business requirements with sophisticated user friendly customization tools, there is a need for due diligence prior to making decisions on the various computer components. The need for this action is because poor decisions when acquiring a computer system has seen some of them fail, leading to losses to the organization. For instance, around three-quarters of organizations across the Europe had their computer systems fail in 2011 only leading to data loss or system downtime (BBC, 2011). Another example is the loss suffered by the BBC when it was forced to abandon a  £98 digital production system because it was being outpaced by the changing technology (BBC, 2013). As defined by Kroenke and Hooper (2013), a system is an integration of several components that interact to achieve a common goal. Therefore, computer systems used by the businesses have several elements that managers must consider when making decisions to acquire them. These components include the hardware, software, people, data, and instructions/procedures. The hardware is the physical devices of a computer system used to input, process, output, and store data. The software refers to programs stored in the computer system. The instructions are related to the software while people are the system’s users. When an organization has a qualified workforce to run and operate its computer system, it goes ahead and considers other factors as discussed below. Expandability – The hardware should be scalable to meet the increasing needs of the business. This factor is especially important when considering the memory

In the novel of Mice and Men show how Steinbeck represents the theme of loneliness Essay Example for Free

In the novel of Mice and Men show how Steinbeck represents the theme of loneliness Essay The name of the author of this novel is John Steinbeck. He wrote this novel in 1936 and it was published in 1937. The novel is set in a ranch, which is near the town of Soledad, California. Steinbeck got the name for his novel from a poem by Robert Burns called To a mouse, on turning her up in her nest with the plough. At the time this novel was written America was in the period of the Great Depression. This meant people could not find many permanent jobs and so had to travel around the country looking for work. This meant that the workers were sometimes away from their families for a long time and had to travel alone just to try make some money. This was a very bad period in the American history with a high rate of suicide and many people got bankrupt. Usually the workers would stay in a job for a few weeks after which they would travel to find another job, this meant they did not have much time to make friends and so often were very lonely. The main characters in of Mice and Men are George and Lennie. The story is based around them and their time at the ranch. Some of the other important characters are Slim, Curly, Curlys wife and Candy. This novel has many themes in it which include loneliness, the dreams of the workers and also apartheid and sexism. Some of the characters who are lonely are Curlys wife and Crooks. These two are lonely because first of all Crooks is as Black person and at the time Black people did not have the same rights as White people. This meant that Crooks had no one to talk to and usually had to spend time by himself. After a while of spending time completely on his own Crooks thinks that he could be going crazy and he really wants some company. I know this because in chapter four Crooks is talking to Lennie and he say, I seen things out here. I wasnt drunk. I dont know if I was asleep. If some guy was with me, he could tell me I was asleep, an then it would be all right. But I just dont know. This shows that Crooks has been on his own for too long, and now he is not even sure of what is real and what is not. Crooks does not have any dreams because he has been at the ranch for a long time and has seen many peoples dreams destroyed. Another person who is lonely is Candys wife. She is lonely because she is a woman and so none of the men really talk to her. Also because she is the only woman on the ranch she has no other women to talk to either. This means she gets very lonely, however she does try talk to the men sometimes, but this has a bad affect. This is because the men think she is some type of whore or a slut who is trying to manipulate or use them in some way. This is unfair on Curlys wife because they do not know her and all she wants is some company. Also Curlys wife is from the city and so does not know how to do the ranch work and so she usually has to stay in the house on her own. Candy does not like Curlys wife because he thinks she is a tart. The ranch in the novel is near a town called Soledad, however because there are no buildings or people very close to the ranch itself, people inside only have each other to talk to and because Curlys wife is the only female she has no one to talk to and so feels isolated. This is also the case for Crooks because he is the only Black person on the ranch. In the novel, George is a migrant worker who has been traveling around America doing odd jobs with his fellow companion Lennie. George is a small man with small strong hands, dark face and sharp restless eyes. From his description I can see that George is a clever and careful character. Lennie on the other hand is a big man with large pale eyes, and sloping shoulders. His movement had a bear like quality and the way he is described in the novel makes him sound like an animal. George and Lennie travel together because they are friends and have known each other a long time. Also it would be better then traveling alone, because they would have no other companions and so would be lonely. At the start of the novel George and Lennie are in a natural clearing a few miles away from the ranch. They have not got any money because they had to buy bus tickets and had to flee the last town because Lennie got into trouble. George and Lennie have a good friendship but at times it seems that it is a relationship between and father and son. George seems to take the roll of the father and Lennie the son. Even though George complains about Lennie and says that he would be much better off without Lennie, he still needs Lennie for companionship. I know this because in chapter one George says, God a mighty, if I was alone I could live so easy. I could go get a job a job an work, an no trouble. This shows that George sometimes does wish he is alone because Lennie is sometimes just too much trouble and he thinks that if he didnt have to look after Lennie then he wouldnt have all this money trouble. Although, even though he sometimes wishes that Lennie wasnt around he knows that he couldnt live without him. I know this because when Lennie tells George that he can leave if George wants him to and says he can go live in the hills. George apologizes to Lennie for shouting at him and tells him to stay with him. George and Lennie both share a dream. Their dream is to own a piece of their own land where they can live and feed themselves. This is the American dream. For George and Lennie the dream makes them think they are different to the other workers. George tells Lennie how most workers make some money then spend it all in some brothel or bar He then tells Lennie how they are different. He tells him how they have each other and they have a dream that they are working towards. For George and Lennie their dream is very important because it is a way they are getting through life. The dream gives them hope, and that is one human feature that always seems to make people believe that everything will be ok and they will be happy. John Steinbeck shows that their dream is an ideal because it is just too perfect. The dream is about George and Lennie having their own land on which they will have rabbits, a cow and grow vegetables. Also the ways Lennie describes the rabbits shows that it is just a fantasy. He says they will be all different colours, like yellow and green. The readers know that this is impossible and yet they sympathize with Lennie because of his child like innocence. In chapter four George is with the rest of the men at a brothel called Susys. Even though they have gone there to get some relief after the long day they have had, it is quite hypocritical of George to be going to this brothel because he says that he is not one of the men who just goes there and spends all his money. Although we are not told if he does spend any money there it is quite likely he does spend some. This means he is being a hypocrite. In chapter four Lennie goes into Crooks room without being invited. In this chapter Lennie is in Crooks control and when Crooks starts telling Lennie that George has left him and wont come back Lennie believes him and then gets angry. Crooks calms him down because Lennie can be very dangerous when he gets angry or upset. After a while Candy comes in and he and Lennie start telling Crooks about their dream and how it will come true. Even though George told them not to tell anyone they tell Crooks anyway because he is Black and they think it wont matter if he knows. Candy is an old man who has been at the ranch for a long time. He has been allowed to stay there because his hand was cut off in one of the machines at the ranch. At the ranch he works as a floor sweeper. Candy is lonely because he is considered just to be an old man and none of the workers really talk to him that much. He did have a dog which was very important to him because he was his only companion and he had owned the dog since it was a puppy, unfortunately for him the dog became too old and so had to be shot. Also it hurt him more because he was not able to shoot him and the dog was shot by someone else. Crooks is lonely because he is a Black person and on the ranch he is the only one. They do not let him stay in the barn with the rest of the workers and so he has no one to talk to. He only has his books and they are very important to him because they are a form of companionship. Crooks and Candy are both lonely because they have no one who they can really talk with and make friends with. In chapter four they have been left behind while the rest go to Susys cathouse because Candy is considered to be too old and Crooks is Black and so cannot go into many places. Candy gets involved in George and Lennies dream because after his dog gets shot, Candy over hears George and Lennie talking about it and asks them if he could be apart of it. He says he is willing to pay and pays much more ten both George and Lennie combined. This dream gives Candy new hope and therefore feels livelier. When Crooks first hears about the dream he is quite critical about it but the further he hears about it the more convinced he becomes. However he has seen too many peoples dreams broken and so he says he does not want to be apart of it. Steinbeck shows that without dreams people have no hope and without hope life seems to be worthless. He shows that people need dreams, however farfetched they are, so that they feel they have goals and something to look forward to. Crooks has a more realistic attitude towards dreams, he says in chapter four that dreams get destroyed and it ruins people lives. I can show this because he says, an every damn one of ems got a little piece of land in his head. An never a god-damn one of em ever gets it. This is proof that Crooks is more realistic and he knows how the world works. He knows that people never seem to make their dreams come true. Curlys wife is quite young and beautiful. She is lonely because she has no one to talk to. She married Curly because she was upset with her mother and so does not really love Curly. She is a trophy wife for Curly. In chapter four she is the one in charge of all the misfits. She knows this and so she behaves quite badly and is mean to Crooks. When Crooks tells her to get out she tells him to be quiet or she will get him hanged. She tells him that all she has to do is scream rape and he will be hanged. This shows that Curlys wife also has an evil side. In this novel Steinbeck is sexist to women. He does not even give Curlys wife a name, and makes her look like a tart. Also most of the other characters think she is a bad woman, George gives her names such as jail-bait and tart. Curlys wife also has a dream. Her dream is to become a star and become rich and famous. She is quite gullible, we know this because she tells Lennie about a man telling her he would take her to Hollywood and make her a star, but in reality he just wanted her. Curlys wifes loneliness leads to her to own death because she is so desperate to talk to someone she starts to talk to Lennie. Lennie has a childlike mind and so does not really understand her and they both talk about two different things, but for Curlys wife just being with someone is good enough. She then lets him stroke her hair and when Lennie does not let go, she starts screaming, this makes Lennie confused and frightened and so he suffocates her. The writer has shown loneliness in this novel through the actions the characters take and the things they say. Some of the similarities between the lonely characters are that, that both Crooks and Candy are treated differently. This leads to them wanting to get involved in George and Lennies dream. Also Curlys wife is similar to these two characters because she is a woman, but between the three characters she is the most powerful one. Lennie and Candy are similar because they are both coping with life through their dreams. The writer is saying that loneliness is a curse itself and people react in different ways to it. He is trying to say that humans cannot survive when they are lonely and sometimes can go crazy. The novel of Mice and Men is a tragedy and the writer shows that George and Lennies friendship is doomed from the start. He shows that even though they need each other they will never be successful with their dream. With Lennies death the dream is over for both George and Candy. Without Lennie George will have no companionship and so he will be the same as the rest of the migrant workers. George shot Lennie because even though Lennie did not realize it, he had committed a crime and taken a persons life. George knew that Lennie had gone too far this time and knew that he had no other choice. Also he did not want the others to find him because they would have made him suffer and George would not have been able to see that happen. I think that in some ways he did do the right thing because if he let the others find Lennie they would have put him through trials and tortured him, however maybe he should have let the justice system deal with the case instead of taking matters into his own hands. The theme of loneliness in this novel is a very good reflection of the social and economic settings of the 1930s. I think this because many of the issues it covers are typical of the 1930s, such as racism and sexism.

Definition And Conditions Of Decision Making Tourism Essay

Definition And Conditions Of Decision Making Tourism Essay As managers and entrepreneurs, we should have confidence in our decisions, but can we? Discuss with regard to your ability as a decision maker and the tools and methods available to assist decision making. Entrepreneur and managers are no longer able to have confidence in their decision. Because even good managers make mistakes in their decision making process. Therefore, there are many of the business organisations trying to find out the best method of decision making process. Nevertheless, many of them experience end in failure or sink in the business world. Because, decision making of organisation, as it operates with in the organisation, implies that increasing unexpected complexity in environment uncertainty. And this uncertainty means that decision makers do not have sufficient information about environmental factors, and they have a difficult time predicting internal or external changes. So, uncertainty increases the risk of failure for organisational responses and makes it difficult to compute costs and probabilities associated with decision alternatives. Therefore, any organisations want to success in their business, it is essential to use suitable decision making tools and me thods. To understand this essay better, defining the term of decision making is necessary. According to Fitzgerald, decision making involves the choice of an alternative from among a series of competing alternatives (2002, p. 8). And theories of decision making are concerned with how such choices are made. This essay will explain nature of decision making, tools and methods of decision making process and steps in decision making to assist decision makers. Finally, availability of those tools and methods by managers and entrepreneurs will be discussed to assist their decision making process. First of all, nature of decision making should be identified before it discusses about its tools and methods. The definition of decision making is explained in introduction. However, decision making conditions are should be concerned before the actual decisions have been made because the decisions are not always made under same amount of available information (Rue Byars, 2007, p. 76). The conditions which give influence to decision making process are: certainty, risk and uncertainty. Situation of certainty means that decision maker knows every alternative outcome from the decision so he/she can make decision precisely. For example, if manager have to make decision on which transport service he/she will use between by air or by train to deliver their product or service, it is obvious that air will take relatively shorter time but higher cost than train, and train will take longer time but lower cost than airplane. Unfortunately, each alternative brings different outcomes and this is not always known in advance. Therefore, decision makers are only able to estimate their relative probabilities of outcomes. According to Williams, perception of risk means the amount of uncertainty or lack of predictability concerning the outcome of a decision (2002, p. 86). This is called a situation of risk. Generally, exact prediction about probabilities of various outcomes is impossible. Thus, managers may make their decision based on past experience and historical data. However, Russo and Schoemarker said people do not learn easily from experience because is requires pro-found skills (1990, p. 174). Although, risk can never be eliminated from decision making process, decision makers can attempt to minimize its impact on their outcome with technique of learning from experience and forecasting from historical data. When there is very little or no reliable information to estimate the variety of possible outcomes fro decision maker, this is called situation of uncertainty. Moreover, this means that the decision maker does not have any knowledge that concerns the possibilities related with different outcomes. In this circumstance, decision maker may take one of several approaches. First approach is the maximax approach. Rue Byars selecting the alternative whose best possible outcomes is the best of all possible outcomes for all alternatives (2007, p. 77). In the second approach, the maximin approach refers comparing the worst possible outcomes for each alternative and selecting the one that is least undesirable (Rue Byars, 2007, p. 77). And the last approach is the risk-averting approach. This approach can be resulted in more effective planning because it is chosen by the alternative with the least fluctuation among its possible outcomes (2007, p. 78). The conditions for decision making occupy important position in decision making process by guiding decision makers which decision making model they should use. Therefore, decision makers should keep in mind those conditions before they make actual decision for organisations. Decision making tools and methods in decision process support decision makers to understand complex phenomena in managerial activities. Those tools and methods are able to maximise managerial options within decision making process specifically and describe its situations clearly. The tools are for fostering making creative decision. And the methods have rational and intuitive methods for effective decision making. By using these tools and methods, the triple bottom line and managers corporate social responsibility should be concerned together. According to Williams, creative problem solving is not easy and applying the tools requires time, resources, and effort (2002, p. 149). However, to improve the quality of organisations important decision making process, creative decision making techniques are essential. These techniques are such as brainstorming, Gordon technique, nominal group technique, and synectics. Brainstorming can be explained as producing a large quantity of solution on a problem to find out its solution among them. By using this tool, there is initially no criticism and question of idea should be allowed. Then combinations of solutions can be used as decision making tool for improvement of organisation. Gordon technique is similar with brainstorming but it can be differ from that group leader knows the exact nature of the real problem under consideration (Rue Byars, 2007, p. 84). Nominal group technique is involving few steps as highly structured technique. The order of steps is listening recording voting-discussion final voting. This technique minimizes personal interactions to maximize their activity and reduce pressure from conformity with group decision. The synectics is a relatively new technique used in creative decision making process. This technique uses metaphorical thinking to make the familiar strange and the strange familiar (Rue Byars, 2007, p. 85). None of those techniques is a perfect tool for assisting decision makers activity. Each technique should be considered as a just tool that can facilitate proper decision making process by decision makers. Rational decision making method is the most pervasive and influential and to use rational decision making effectively, this includes the following steps: recognising and defining the situation, developing alternatives, evaluating alternatives, selecting the best alternative, implementation, and follow-up and evaluation (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg, Coulter, 2006, p. 208-212). First, when problem exist, it is necessary to find out what kind of problem it is including organisations current situation. The gap between the current situation and existing problem can be identified in this step. Second, developing alternatives is for finding a cause of problem in the situation and gathering information concerning the current state of affairs. Third, evaluating alternatives has a role for helping decision maker to evaluate a solution from among the available alternatives. Forth, selecting the best alternatives is choosing the best option from among the evaluated alternatives. Fifth, implementati on refers that decision maker is putting the decision he/she chosen into actual organisational activities. Sixth, the last step is evaluating the effectiveness of the implemented decision by decision maker. These steps assist decision maker to optimize organisations outcome. Fitzgerald believes that embedded within the rational model is the belief that managers actually optimize their decision making behaviour by deliberately choosing and implementing the best alternatives (2002, p.13). On the other hand there are similar but slightly different approach is included in rational method. That is satisficing approach. The difference between optimizing approach and satisficing approach in rational method is satisficing is selecting the first alternative that meets the decision makers minimum standard of satisfaction instead of selecting the best possible alternative from among every possible alternative (Rue Byars, 2007, p. 74). Intuitive decision making method is used when decision maker decide organisational decision bases on hunches and intuition (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg, Coulter, 2006, p. 216). Moreover, Robbins, Bergman, Stagg, Coulter defined intuitive decision making as a subconscious process of making decisions on basis of experience and accumulated judgement (2006, p. 216). That means an emotional decision is put into action by decision maker from their mind in decision making process. The emotional attachment can lead manager to poor decisions or can be very real especially who are living in the past. However, the key is manager should not ignore when the available information exist. Intuition plays an important role in decision making process. Consequently, it can be said managers experience and judgement is important when he/she faces the decision making situation. Learning from the past is not easy but once it has become your knowledge, it can be important resource for decision making as a dec ision maker (Williams, 2002, p. 153). In conclusion, this essay discussed about definition and conditions of decision making. The different conditions such as certainty, risk and uncertainty give different influence on decision making process. And the tools and methods have been identified as that can promote improvement of organisation by decision making and several steps in decision making methods to assist decision managers and entrepreneurs. The tools in decision making process allow improving the quality of organisations important decision. Then the methods in decision making are more related to assist decision makers to put one of the possible alternatives on actual action. Decision making process can be improved by recognising conditions of decision making and applying appropriate tools and methods to problems decision maker is faced. To be effective and efficient in decision making process, managers need to be open to new information and others opinion. If managers and entrepreneurs apply creative and sufficient decision making skills in their decision making process, there are various solutions to achieve their goal or overcome their problem will be allowed without failure in decision making.

Theories on Learning and Multimedia

Theories on Learning and Multimedia Literature Review Introduction Computer-based instruction was used by the military to create standardize training and be more cost-effective (Shlechter, 1991). Computer-based instruction allows individual learners to pace the lesson content to meet his or her needs and provides the environment for self-directed learning (Lowe, 2002). Computer-based instruction can be defined as using computers to deliver, track, and/or manage instruction and when computers are the main mode of content delivery. The instruction can include text, images, and feedback. Software advances allow developers to integrate audio narrations, sound clips, graphics, videos, and animation into a single presentation and played on a computer (Koroghlanian Klein, 2000; Moreno Mayer, 1999). Instruction is classified as multimedia when sound, video, and images are included. Multimedia incorporates audio and visual elements with the instruction (Craig Gholson, Driscoll, 2002; Mayer Moreno, 2003; Mayer and Sims, 1994; Mayer Johnson, 2008). Audio components include narrations, which uses the students verbal channel of his or her working memory. Visual components include static images, animations using multiple still images, a video, and/or on screen text, which uses the students visual channel of his or her working memory. When the student receives the information from the verbal and visual channel of his or her working memory and relates the information from the two channels, then meaningful learning has occurred (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). Meaningful learning is developing a understanding of the material, which includes attending to important aspects of the presented material, mentally organizing it into a coherent cognitive structure, and integrating it with relevant existing knowledge, (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Meaningful learning or understanding occurs when students are able to apply the content they learned and are able to transfer the information to new situations or creating solutions to problems rooted in the content presented (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007; Mayer and Sims, 1994). Allowing students to process and apply the information is essential for knowledge retention and meaningful learning. In multimedia learning, active processing requires five cognitive processes: selecting words, selecting images, organizing words, organizing images, and integrating. Mayer Moreno 2003 Multimedia instruction not only incorporates audio and visual elements it also has the capability of creating nonlinear content. Creating a nonlinear lesson allows the learner to have an active role in his or her learning and bypass sections they have already learned as well as go back and review sections if they need reinforcement. It is like putting the student in the drivers seat and enabling them to reach the destination through a variety of paths versus sitting on a bus and stopping at each stop and waiting until they reach the destination. Cognitive Learning Theories in Multimedia Multiple multimedia learning theories and principles guide the creation process for multimedia presentations and facilitates student learning. Using the theories and principles guides the presentation creation process and facilitates students learning. The two overarching theories are cognitive load and dual coding. Several effects and __ related to the two main theories are: split-attention, redundancy, modality, spatial contiguity principle, temporal congruity principle and coherence principle. The four theories that are directly relevant to this study are: ___ ___ ___ and ___. Add figure of org chart of principles theories. Paivo, Sweller Mayer. Mayers theory of multimedia learning Cognitive Load The working memory has a finite capacity for processing incoming information for any one channel, visual or audio. The combined processing, at any particular time, creates the working memorys cognitive load ability (Baddeley, 1992; Mayer Moreno, 2003; Chandler Sweller, 1991). To take advantage of the memorys capability it is important to reduce redundant and irrelevant information, thus reducing the cognitive load (Sweller, 1994; Ardaà § and Unal 2008; Mayer Moreno, 2003; Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). To keep the information efficient the multimedia should eliminate information that does not apply to a lesson or assignment. Content that is nonessential for transfer or retention should also be eliminated. Information needs to be concise by carefully selecting the text and images for the content and present the information succinct and organized in a logical pattern (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Careful selection of text and images should be concise so content can be presented in a succinct and organized, logical pattern. Grouping the information into smaller portions of information reduces the cognitive load. By chunking the information, the working memory has the opportunity process the content and makes connections with prior learning and knowledge. The information is then stored in long-term memory (Mayer Moreno, 2003). After presenting a portion of the information, the multimedia presentation should include a brief activity to engage the student in processing and storing the information. Utilizing both the auditory and the visual channel of the working memory also helps with the cognitive load and content retention (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). Based on the information above about memory and processing the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) was developed by Sweller (1993, 1994, 1998). The theory assumes that people possess a limited working memory (Miller, 1956) and an immense long-term memory (Chase Simon, 1973), with learning mechanisms of schema acquisition (Chi et al., 1982; Larkin et al., 1980) and automatic processing (Kotovsky et al., 1985), (Jueng, Chandler Sweller, 1997). Cognitive load theory provides a single framework for instructional design based on separate cognitive processing capabilities for visual and auditory information (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). Creating a multimedia presentation that conforms to CLT would integrate the auditory and visual information on the screen. The CLT presentation design limits the load on any one channel to prevent cognitive overload and increase learning (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998; Mayer and Moreno 2002; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Further research conducted by __ __ ______ _____ indentified three separate types of cognitive load, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane. Intrinsic cognitive load The first type of cognitive load is intrinsic and is shaped by the learning task and the learning taking place (Van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005). Intrinsic cognitive load occurs between the learner and the content, with the learners level of knowledge in the content area playing a factor. The other factors are the elements the working memory is processing at one time and element interactivity (van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005). Element interactivity level depends on the degree to which the learner can understand the element information independently (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). If you need to reduce total cog load (intri + extr + gemain) you need you need to know the elements and how to reduce loads. If the learner needs to understand several elements at once, and how they interact with each other, then the element interactivity is high. However, if the learner can understand each element independently then the element interactivity is low (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Th e intrinsic level occurs with the learner and their working memory and constructing meaning from the elements presented. While intrinsic load cannot be adjusted, the extraneous load can be modified. Give own example of high and low element interactivity. (van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005) à   intrinsic learning schema construction and automation. Content element interactivity directly correlated to intrinsic cognitive load ? (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Page 1 of article Extraneous cognitive load The second type of cognitive load is extraneous or ineffective and is affected by the format of the information presented and what is required of the learner. Extraneous cognitive load occurs when information or learning tasks have high levels of cognitive processing and impedes with knowledge attainment (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Extraneous cognitive load is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load since the cognitive processing is not contributing to the learning process. The working memory has independent two channels for processing audio and visual. If the instruction occurs only using one channel instead of utilizing both channels the learner will experience a higher level of extraneous cognitive load (van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005). Extraneous cognitive load can be reduced by several effects studied as part of instructional design and cognitive load report as by Sweller et al., 1998 such as; split attention, modality, and redundancy (van Merrià «nboer and Swel ler, 2005). Germane cognitive load The third type of cognitive load is germane and is also affected by design of the instruction being presented. While extraneous cognitive load accounts for information impeding learning germane cognitive load focuses on freeing cognitive resources to increase learning. Germane is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load. Germane and extraneous work together disproportionately. Designing instruction that lessens the extraneous cognitive load allows additional cognitive processing for germane load and increase students ability to assimilate information being presented (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads work together for a combined total cognitive load; this combined load cannot be greater than the available memory resources for a learner. An experiment conducted by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997 had a purpose of measuring cognitive load. The participants were twenty two first year apprentices and had completed grade ten of high school. The participants were assigned to one of two treatments, visual-only instructions and audio-visual instructions. The experiment started with an instructional phase, which has two parts and was 100 seconds in length. Part one of the instruction phase had an explanation of how to read an electrical table and was either all visual, or was visual and audio with a cassette player. After the instructional phase part one, the participant rated the mental effort (load) based on a seven point scale. Then the apprentices took part in a test phase which included three sections. The first section was a written test where participants filled in the blank headings in an electrical table. The second section contained questions about the format of the table. After the first part of instruction and two parts of testing, participants were given the same electrical table and participants had to apply information contained in the table to examples given. Participants had 170 seconds to study the information, then completed another subjective mental effort (load) survey. Then the participants complete the final section of the test phase. The apprentices had to apply the information and select the appropriate cable for an installation job with the given parameters. Apprentices had a two week break where they continued with their normal training. Then both the two part instruction phase and the three part test phase were repeated. A 2 (group) X 2 (phase) ANOVA was run for the first instruction section and the first two sections of the written test in the test phase and significant difference was found with the audio-visual group performing better than the visual-only group. When the ANOVA was run for the mental load for the two phases significance was found again, with the audio-visual group rating the mental effort lower than the visual-only group. Similar results were found when analyzing part two of instruction mental load and section three of the written test for both phases. All test results revealed the audio-visual group outperforming the visual-only group for all tests and a lower mental load rating. Therefore the participant performance can be linked back to the cognitive load. An experiment was conducted by Ardac and Unal, 2008 finish later Based on the experiment above by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997, when selecting a format for a presentation audio-only is the better choice. This is true not only from a modality theory, it is also better from a cognitive load theory perspective, since visual-only formats cause a higher level of mental effort for participants. Transition sentence that link split-attention effect as a part of cognitive load theory. Split-Attention Effect When images or animations are involved with the redundant text then the visual channel has to pay attention to multiple visual elements and the attention is split between the many visual pieces, creating the split-attention effect. Having several visual components such as text and animations causes an increase in the cognitive load and learning is hampered (Ardac Unal, 2008). Split-attention occurs when instructional material contains multiple sources of information that are not comprehendible by themselves and need to be integrated either physically or mentally to be understandable (Jeung, Chandler Sweller, 1997; Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Split-attention effect can be minimized by placing related text close in proximity to the image in the presentation or using audio narration for an animation instead of on-screen text (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). One experiment conducted to test the split-attention theory was designed by Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn, 2001. In this experiment there were 78 participants selected from an university psychology subject pool. The experiment was a 2 x 2 design with summarized on-screen text as a factor and extraneous details as a second factor. There were four groups; no text/no seductive details group with 22 students, text/no seductive details group with 19 students, no text/seductive details group with 21 students, text/seductive details group with 16 students. The group had a median age of 18.4 and was 33% male. All participants a little prior knowledge of meteorology with a score of seven or lower out of eleven questions. Participants viewed a computer-based multimedia presentation. The versions with text included a summary of the narration. The versions with seductive details included additional narrations with real world examples. The experiment started with participants completing a questionnaire to collect demographic and prior knowledge information. Then participants watched a presentation with one of the treatments at individual computers. At the completion of the video students completed a retention and transfer test. Students who received on-screen text scored significantly lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have on-screen text. These results are consistent with the split-attention theory as it relates to cognitive theory of multimedia. Students who received seductive details also scored lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have seductive details. These results indicate that including seductive details to a presentation hampered student learning. Another experiment conducted was by Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller, 1997. This experiment had thirty participants that were first year trade apprenticed from Sydney. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups, each group had ten participants. The first group was the visual only group that consisted of diagrams and related textual statements. The second group integrated the presentation included the textual statements however the statements were physically integrated into the diagrams. The third group is the audio-visual group included the same diagrams and however the textual statements were presented as audio instead of text. The participants first read the instructional materials, the audio group listened to the information from an audio-cassette. Then participants completed a written test with three sections; a labeling section, a multiple choice section, and a transfer section, and finally participants completed a practical test. While analysis of the multiple choice section revealed no significant difference, the data indicated the audio-visual group performing better than the visual group. The section three data, the transfer test, had significant with the audio-visual and the integrated group performing better than the visual only. The findings revealed that the audio-visual and the integrated formats performed better than the visual only group. The non-integrated text performed the poorest out of the three groups, which supports the split-attention effect. A set of two experiments were conducted by Mayer Moreno, 1998 to verify split-attention and dual processing. The first experiment had 78 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about metrology. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 40 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 38 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers. The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about lightening formation; the students in the AN groups had on headphones. The presentation was 140 seconds long and included animation of the lightening process. The AN version had narration and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version. After the presentation the participants had 6 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the lightening process. Then they had 3 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 3 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students had to label parts of an image, based on the lightening formation statements provided. A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test; which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing. The second experiment by Mayer and Moreno, 1998 the content was changed to how a cars braking system operates. The first experiment had 68 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about car mechanics. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 34 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 34 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers. The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about how a cars braking system operates; the students in the AN groups had on headphones. The presentation was 45 seconds long and included animation of a cars braking process, and was broken into 10 segments. The AN version had narration and a brief pause between segments, and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version. The AT groups text appeared under the animation and stayed visible until the next segment started. Then participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. After the presentation the participants had 5 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the braking process. Then they had 2.5 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 2.5 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students were given parts of the braking system and they had to identify the parts in an image and label them. A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test; which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing. CONCLUSION!!! (318-319) The experiments indicate the adding text in addition to the narration will impede student learning. The second experiment clarifies the split-attention effect, which if text is included it needs to be placed near the relevant part of the diagram. If text is not near the images, increase in the cognitive load occurs by trying to combine the images and text. The last two experiment further clarify the split-attention effect with three measures in two different experiments. Therefore narration should be used to accompany animation and images instead of text. Modality Effect The working memory of a human has two channels a visual channel that processes information such as text, images, and animation through the eyes and an auditory channel that processes sounds such as narration through the ears. According to the modality principle, when information is presented in multimedia explanations, it also should ideally be presented auditorily versus on screen text (Craig, Gholson, Discoll, 2002; Moreno Mayer, 1999; Mayer, 2001; Mayer Johnson, 2008; Mayer, Fennell, et al., 2004). When the information is presented auditorily, the working memory uses both channels, visual and auditory to process the information being heard and the information on the screen (Tabbers, Martens, van Merrià «nboer, 2004). By utilizing both working memory channels, the mind can allocate additional cognitive resources and create relationships between the visual and verbal information (Moreno and Mayer, 1999). When learning occurs using both memory channels the memory does not become overloaded and the learning becomes embedded, this improves the learners understanding (Mayer Moreno, 2002). Several experiments have been conducted relating to modality theory. One experiment in a geometry lesson taught in a math class at the elementary school level focused on the conditions that modality effect would be occur. The researchers, Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller, (1997) created a three-by-two experiment that included three presentation modes and two search modes. The three presentation modes were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing. The visual-visual diagrams and supporting information were presented visually as on screen text; the audio-visual group diagrams and supporting information were presented visually. In the audio-visual-flashing group, the supporting information was presented auditorily and diagrams were presented visually. However parts of the diagram flashed when the corresponding audio occurred. The two search modes were high search mode and low search mode. The high search mode labeled each end of the line separately so a line was identified by the letters at each end such as AB. Whereas the low search mode labeled the entire line with a single letter, such as C and reducing the search needed to locate the information. The experiment content was geometry; the study population was sixty students from year six in a primary school with no previous geometry experience, creating ten students per group. The students participated in the experiment individually during class time. Students were randomly assigned to one of six groups the information was presented to the students on the computer. The experiment had three phases; an introduction phase where the problem was identified and was presented in one of the six modes as assigned to the student, an acquisition phase which included two worked out examples on the computer, after each example students were required to complete a similar problem with pencil and paper, and finally a test phase that included four problems for students to complete with pencil and paper. In the test phase they found a significant effect on presentation mode but not on the search complexity. They performed additional data analysis to discover the significance between the presentation modes occurred in the high search group, but not the low search group. Analysis of the presentation modes for the high search group revealed that the audio-visual-flashing group performed a higher level of performance than the visual-visual group. The experiment confirmed the modality theory hypothesis that mixed mode presentation (audio-visual-flashing) would be more effective because the multiple modes increase the working memory capacity. However these results were only found with the high search group and not the low search group. The group conducted two additional experiments to focus on high search and low search separately. The second experiment focused on high search. For this experiment, the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who were in year six and had not been taught parallel line in geometry. The procedure was the same as before however the geometry content was a complex diagram. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students were in each group. The results were consistent with modality theory and students who were in the audio-visual-flashing group performed better then the visual-visual group, and no differences were found between visual-visual group and the audio-visual group. Therefore for high search materials, the dual presentation mode increased performance when a visual reference was provided. The third experiment focused on low search. In this experiment the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who had not been taught parallel lines in geometry. The groups included visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, and ten students were in each group. The procedure was similar to the first experiment however the geometry content was a low search diagram and only contained two labels. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students in each group. The results revealed that the modality effect did occur with the transfer problems and the visual-visual group took more time than the audio-visual and the audio-visual-flashing group. The difference was that with the low search content the audio-visual group performed better than the visual-visual group meaning, low search materials the flashing indicator is not as beneficial. The three experiments had demonstrated that using mixed modes of presenta tion increases the effectiveness of the working memory and capacity for learning. The results indicated that when content requires a high level of search, visual indicators need to be included to free up cognitive resources and increase memory capacity. Therefore, based on the work of Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) when the computer multimedia presentations were created with a visual cue of a yellow box with a red outline was used as a visual indicator to assist users to locate where the mouse is clicking so students are not scanning the entire video screen for the mouse. In addition to visual references one version of the video included audio only and another version will contain text only to confirm the modality effect. Selecting the most appropriate part of the working memory to disseminate the information and using the auditory channel to process information via audio instead of visual text allows the visual channel to use the working memory to focus on the images and animations that coincide with the audio. It is similar to watching a news program on television, your ears are listening to the news anchor and the working memory is processing that information while your eyes are watching the corresponding footage and the brain it combining the two pieces of information together. However if put closed captioning on you are reading the same information you are hearing which is redundant. Redundancy Effect Redundancy effect can be defined as information being presented appears as both an image and as on-screen text, and the visual channel is responsible for all information while the audio channel is not used (Mayer, 2001; Barron Calandra, 2003). The distinction between the split-attention and redundancy effects hinges on the distinction between sources of information that are intelligible in isolation and those that are not. If a diagram and the concepts of functions it represents are sufficiently self-contained and intelligibly in isolation, then any text explaining the diagram is redundant and should be omitted in order to reduce the cognitive load (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998). Redundancy can occur with full text and full audio, full text and partial audio or partial text and full audio (Barron Calandra, 2003). The redundant information may be duplicate text and narration, a text description and a diagram or on-screen text and audio narration. The duplicate information cause s in increase in the learners working memory because the visual channel is processing the same information from multiple sources. (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998; Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001). The redundancy effect is evident when student performance is hindered when redundant information is present, and student performance increase when the redundant information is removed (Kalyuga et all, 1998; Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001; Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). The redundancy effect can be eliminated by presenting on-screen text as narration or presenting information as a diagram instead of a lengthy text explanation, and delivering information in a single mode that works complimentary with the other content be delivered (Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001). Several experiments have been conducted relating to redundancy theory. One experiment conducted by Jamet and Le Boec, 2007 was designed to test the hypothesis that redundancy effect would be observed with full text and narration, and presenting sequential text would reduce the redundancy effect. The experiment had 90 undergraduate students from a psychology pool in France, with a median age of 20. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups; no text, full text with corresponding audio, and sequential text. The experiment started with a prior knowledge test with four general questions and two specific questions. Then the participants viewed three documents about memory functioning, the presentation lasted about 11 minutes. After the presentation the participants took a retention test twelve open-ended questions. Then they took a transfer test with twelve inferential open-ended questions. Finally, the participants had to complete a diagram by labeling components. Results revealed significance difference with the retention scores with the no-text group performing better than the full-text group and the sequential text group. Similar results were reported for the diagram completion portion of the experiment and the transfer task. There was no significant effect size to indicate that the redundancy effect would be reduced by presenting redundant text sequentially. There was a significant effect between the no-text and the other two groups for the transfer, retention, and the diagram test which validates the redundancy effect. Based on the findings from the experiment above, having on-screen text in addition to narration overloads the visual channel and decreases learning. The authors did point out that the participants had a difficult time understanding the documents presented and they could not control the presentation. Another set of experiments were conducted by Mayer and Johnson, 2008 to test the redundancy theory. The first experiment focused on short redundant text that was display on-screen. Theories on Learning and Multimedia Theories on Learning and Multimedia Literature Review Introduction Computer-based instruction was used by the military to create standardize training and be more cost-effective (Shlechter, 1991). Computer-based instruction allows individual learners to pace the lesson content to meet his or her needs and provides the environment for self-directed learning (Lowe, 2002). Computer-based instruction can be defined as using computers to deliver, track, and/or manage instruction and when computers are the main mode of content delivery. The instruction can include text, images, and feedback. Software advances allow developers to integrate audio narrations, sound clips, graphics, videos, and animation into a single presentation and played on a computer (Koroghlanian Klein, 2000; Moreno Mayer, 1999). Instruction is classified as multimedia when sound, video, and images are included. Multimedia incorporates audio and visual elements with the instruction (Craig Gholson, Driscoll, 2002; Mayer Moreno, 2003; Mayer and Sims, 1994; Mayer Johnson, 2008). Audio components include narrations, which uses the students verbal channel of his or her working memory. Visual components include static images, animations using multiple still images, a video, and/or on screen text, which uses the students visual channel of his or her working memory. When the student receives the information from the verbal and visual channel of his or her working memory and relates the information from the two channels, then meaningful learning has occurred (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). Meaningful learning is developing a understanding of the material, which includes attending to important aspects of the presented material, mentally organizing it into a coherent cognitive structure, and integrating it with relevant existing knowledge, (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Meaningful learning or understanding occurs when students are able to apply the content they learned and are able to transfer the information to new situations or creating solutions to problems rooted in the content presented (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007; Mayer and Sims, 1994). Allowing students to process and apply the information is essential for knowledge retention and meaningful learning. In multimedia learning, active processing requires five cognitive processes: selecting words, selecting images, organizing words, organizing images, and integrating. Mayer Moreno 2003 Multimedia instruction not only incorporates audio and visual elements it also has the capability of creating nonlinear content. Creating a nonlinear lesson allows the learner to have an active role in his or her learning and bypass sections they have already learned as well as go back and review sections if they need reinforcement. It is like putting the student in the drivers seat and enabling them to reach the destination through a variety of paths versus sitting on a bus and stopping at each stop and waiting until they reach the destination. Cognitive Learning Theories in Multimedia Multiple multimedia learning theories and principles guide the creation process for multimedia presentations and facilitates student learning. Using the theories and principles guides the presentation creation process and facilitates students learning. The two overarching theories are cognitive load and dual coding. Several effects and __ related to the two main theories are: split-attention, redundancy, modality, spatial contiguity principle, temporal congruity principle and coherence principle. The four theories that are directly relevant to this study are: ___ ___ ___ and ___. Add figure of org chart of principles theories. Paivo, Sweller Mayer. Mayers theory of multimedia learning Cognitive Load The working memory has a finite capacity for processing incoming information for any one channel, visual or audio. The combined processing, at any particular time, creates the working memorys cognitive load ability (Baddeley, 1992; Mayer Moreno, 2003; Chandler Sweller, 1991). To take advantage of the memorys capability it is important to reduce redundant and irrelevant information, thus reducing the cognitive load (Sweller, 1994; Ardaà § and Unal 2008; Mayer Moreno, 2003; Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). To keep the information efficient the multimedia should eliminate information that does not apply to a lesson or assignment. Content that is nonessential for transfer or retention should also be eliminated. Information needs to be concise by carefully selecting the text and images for the content and present the information succinct and organized in a logical pattern (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Careful selection of text and images should be concise so content can be presented in a succinct and organized, logical pattern. Grouping the information into smaller portions of information reduces the cognitive load. By chunking the information, the working memory has the opportunity process the content and makes connections with prior learning and knowledge. The information is then stored in long-term memory (Mayer Moreno, 2003). After presenting a portion of the information, the multimedia presentation should include a brief activity to engage the student in processing and storing the information. Utilizing both the auditory and the visual channel of the working memory also helps with the cognitive load and content retention (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). Based on the information above about memory and processing the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) was developed by Sweller (1993, 1994, 1998). The theory assumes that people possess a limited working memory (Miller, 1956) and an immense long-term memory (Chase Simon, 1973), with learning mechanisms of schema acquisition (Chi et al., 1982; Larkin et al., 1980) and automatic processing (Kotovsky et al., 1985), (Jueng, Chandler Sweller, 1997). Cognitive load theory provides a single framework for instructional design based on separate cognitive processing capabilities for visual and auditory information (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). Creating a multimedia presentation that conforms to CLT would integrate the auditory and visual information on the screen. The CLT presentation design limits the load on any one channel to prevent cognitive overload and increase learning (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998; Mayer and Moreno 2002; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Further research conducted by __ __ ______ _____ indentified three separate types of cognitive load, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane. Intrinsic cognitive load The first type of cognitive load is intrinsic and is shaped by the learning task and the learning taking place (Van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005). Intrinsic cognitive load occurs between the learner and the content, with the learners level of knowledge in the content area playing a factor. The other factors are the elements the working memory is processing at one time and element interactivity (van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005). Element interactivity level depends on the degree to which the learner can understand the element information independently (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). If you need to reduce total cog load (intri + extr + gemain) you need you need to know the elements and how to reduce loads. If the learner needs to understand several elements at once, and how they interact with each other, then the element interactivity is high. However, if the learner can understand each element independently then the element interactivity is low (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Th e intrinsic level occurs with the learner and their working memory and constructing meaning from the elements presented. While intrinsic load cannot be adjusted, the extraneous load can be modified. Give own example of high and low element interactivity. (van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005) à   intrinsic learning schema construction and automation. Content element interactivity directly correlated to intrinsic cognitive load ? (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Page 1 of article Extraneous cognitive load The second type of cognitive load is extraneous or ineffective and is affected by the format of the information presented and what is required of the learner. Extraneous cognitive load occurs when information or learning tasks have high levels of cognitive processing and impedes with knowledge attainment (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Extraneous cognitive load is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load since the cognitive processing is not contributing to the learning process. The working memory has independent two channels for processing audio and visual. If the instruction occurs only using one channel instead of utilizing both channels the learner will experience a higher level of extraneous cognitive load (van Merrià «nboer and Sweller, 2005). Extraneous cognitive load can be reduced by several effects studied as part of instructional design and cognitive load report as by Sweller et al., 1998 such as; split attention, modality, and redundancy (van Merrià «nboer and Swel ler, 2005). Germane cognitive load The third type of cognitive load is germane and is also affected by design of the instruction being presented. While extraneous cognitive load accounts for information impeding learning germane cognitive load focuses on freeing cognitive resources to increase learning. Germane is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load. Germane and extraneous work together disproportionately. Designing instruction that lessens the extraneous cognitive load allows additional cognitive processing for germane load and increase students ability to assimilate information being presented (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads work together for a combined total cognitive load; this combined load cannot be greater than the available memory resources for a learner. An experiment conducted by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997 had a purpose of measuring cognitive load. The participants were twenty two first year apprentices and had completed grade ten of high school. The participants were assigned to one of two treatments, visual-only instructions and audio-visual instructions. The experiment started with an instructional phase, which has two parts and was 100 seconds in length. Part one of the instruction phase had an explanation of how to read an electrical table and was either all visual, or was visual and audio with a cassette player. After the instructional phase part one, the participant rated the mental effort (load) based on a seven point scale. Then the apprentices took part in a test phase which included three sections. The first section was a written test where participants filled in the blank headings in an electrical table. The second section contained questions about the format of the table. After the first part of instruction and two parts of testing, participants were given the same electrical table and participants had to apply information contained in the table to examples given. Participants had 170 seconds to study the information, then completed another subjective mental effort (load) survey. Then the participants complete the final section of the test phase. The apprentices had to apply the information and select the appropriate cable for an installation job with the given parameters. Apprentices had a two week break where they continued with their normal training. Then both the two part instruction phase and the three part test phase were repeated. A 2 (group) X 2 (phase) ANOVA was run for the first instruction section and the first two sections of the written test in the test phase and significant difference was found with the audio-visual group performing better than the visual-only group. When the ANOVA was run for the mental load for the two phases significance was found again, with the audio-visual group rating the mental effort lower than the visual-only group. Similar results were found when analyzing part two of instruction mental load and section three of the written test for both phases. All test results revealed the audio-visual group outperforming the visual-only group for all tests and a lower mental load rating. Therefore the participant performance can be linked back to the cognitive load. An experiment was conducted by Ardac and Unal, 2008 finish later Based on the experiment above by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997, when selecting a format for a presentation audio-only is the better choice. This is true not only from a modality theory, it is also better from a cognitive load theory perspective, since visual-only formats cause a higher level of mental effort for participants. Transition sentence that link split-attention effect as a part of cognitive load theory. Split-Attention Effect When images or animations are involved with the redundant text then the visual channel has to pay attention to multiple visual elements and the attention is split between the many visual pieces, creating the split-attention effect. Having several visual components such as text and animations causes an increase in the cognitive load and learning is hampered (Ardac Unal, 2008). Split-attention occurs when instructional material contains multiple sources of information that are not comprehendible by themselves and need to be integrated either physically or mentally to be understandable (Jeung, Chandler Sweller, 1997; Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Split-attention effect can be minimized by placing related text close in proximity to the image in the presentation or using audio narration for an animation instead of on-screen text (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). One experiment conducted to test the split-attention theory was designed by Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn, 2001. In this experiment there were 78 participants selected from an university psychology subject pool. The experiment was a 2 x 2 design with summarized on-screen text as a factor and extraneous details as a second factor. There were four groups; no text/no seductive details group with 22 students, text/no seductive details group with 19 students, no text/seductive details group with 21 students, text/seductive details group with 16 students. The group had a median age of 18.4 and was 33% male. All participants a little prior knowledge of meteorology with a score of seven or lower out of eleven questions. Participants viewed a computer-based multimedia presentation. The versions with text included a summary of the narration. The versions with seductive details included additional narrations with real world examples. The experiment started with participants completing a questionnaire to collect demographic and prior knowledge information. Then participants watched a presentation with one of the treatments at individual computers. At the completion of the video students completed a retention and transfer test. Students who received on-screen text scored significantly lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have on-screen text. These results are consistent with the split-attention theory as it relates to cognitive theory of multimedia. Students who received seductive details also scored lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have seductive details. These results indicate that including seductive details to a presentation hampered student learning. Another experiment conducted was by Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller, 1997. This experiment had thirty participants that were first year trade apprenticed from Sydney. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups, each group had ten participants. The first group was the visual only group that consisted of diagrams and related textual statements. The second group integrated the presentation included the textual statements however the statements were physically integrated into the diagrams. The third group is the audio-visual group included the same diagrams and however the textual statements were presented as audio instead of text. The participants first read the instructional materials, the audio group listened to the information from an audio-cassette. Then participants completed a written test with three sections; a labeling section, a multiple choice section, and a transfer section, and finally participants completed a practical test. While analysis of the multiple choice section revealed no significant difference, the data indicated the audio-visual group performing better than the visual group. The section three data, the transfer test, had significant with the audio-visual and the integrated group performing better than the visual only. The findings revealed that the audio-visual and the integrated formats performed better than the visual only group. The non-integrated text performed the poorest out of the three groups, which supports the split-attention effect. A set of two experiments were conducted by Mayer Moreno, 1998 to verify split-attention and dual processing. The first experiment had 78 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about metrology. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 40 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 38 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers. The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about lightening formation; the students in the AN groups had on headphones. The presentation was 140 seconds long and included animation of the lightening process. The AN version had narration and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version. After the presentation the participants had 6 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the lightening process. Then they had 3 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 3 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students had to label parts of an image, based on the lightening formation statements provided. A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test; which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing. The second experiment by Mayer and Moreno, 1998 the content was changed to how a cars braking system operates. The first experiment had 68 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about car mechanics. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 34 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 34 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers. The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about how a cars braking system operates; the students in the AN groups had on headphones. The presentation was 45 seconds long and included animation of a cars braking process, and was broken into 10 segments. The AN version had narration and a brief pause between segments, and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version. The AT groups text appeared under the animation and stayed visible until the next segment started. Then participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. After the presentation the participants had 5 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the braking process. Then they had 2.5 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 2.5 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students were given parts of the braking system and they had to identify the parts in an image and label them. A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test; which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing. CONCLUSION!!! (318-319) The experiments indicate the adding text in addition to the narration will impede student learning. The second experiment clarifies the split-attention effect, which if text is included it needs to be placed near the relevant part of the diagram. If text is not near the images, increase in the cognitive load occurs by trying to combine the images and text. The last two experiment further clarify the split-attention effect with three measures in two different experiments. Therefore narration should be used to accompany animation and images instead of text. Modality Effect The working memory of a human has two channels a visual channel that processes information such as text, images, and animation through the eyes and an auditory channel that processes sounds such as narration through the ears. According to the modality principle, when information is presented in multimedia explanations, it also should ideally be presented auditorily versus on screen text (Craig, Gholson, Discoll, 2002; Moreno Mayer, 1999; Mayer, 2001; Mayer Johnson, 2008; Mayer, Fennell, et al., 2004). When the information is presented auditorily, the working memory uses both channels, visual and auditory to process the information being heard and the information on the screen (Tabbers, Martens, van Merrià «nboer, 2004). By utilizing both working memory channels, the mind can allocate additional cognitive resources and create relationships between the visual and verbal information (Moreno and Mayer, 1999). When learning occurs using both memory channels the memory does not become overloaded and the learning becomes embedded, this improves the learners understanding (Mayer Moreno, 2002). Several experiments have been conducted relating to modality theory. One experiment in a geometry lesson taught in a math class at the elementary school level focused on the conditions that modality effect would be occur. The researchers, Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller, (1997) created a three-by-two experiment that included three presentation modes and two search modes. The three presentation modes were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing. The visual-visual diagrams and supporting information were presented visually as on screen text; the audio-visual group diagrams and supporting information were presented visually. In the audio-visual-flashing group, the supporting information was presented auditorily and diagrams were presented visually. However parts of the diagram flashed when the corresponding audio occurred. The two search modes were high search mode and low search mode. The high search mode labeled each end of the line separately so a line was identified by the letters at each end such as AB. Whereas the low search mode labeled the entire line with a single letter, such as C and reducing the search needed to locate the information. The experiment content was geometry; the study population was sixty students from year six in a primary school with no previous geometry experience, creating ten students per group. The students participated in the experiment individually during class time. Students were randomly assigned to one of six groups the information was presented to the students on the computer. The experiment had three phases; an introduction phase where the problem was identified and was presented in one of the six modes as assigned to the student, an acquisition phase which included two worked out examples on the computer, after each example students were required to complete a similar problem with pencil and paper, and finally a test phase that included four problems for students to complete with pencil and paper. In the test phase they found a significant effect on presentation mode but not on the search complexity. They performed additional data analysis to discover the significance between the presentation modes occurred in the high search group, but not the low search group. Analysis of the presentation modes for the high search group revealed that the audio-visual-flashing group performed a higher level of performance than the visual-visual group. The experiment confirmed the modality theory hypothesis that mixed mode presentation (audio-visual-flashing) would be more effective because the multiple modes increase the working memory capacity. However these results were only found with the high search group and not the low search group. The group conducted two additional experiments to focus on high search and low search separately. The second experiment focused on high search. For this experiment, the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who were in year six and had not been taught parallel line in geometry. The procedure was the same as before however the geometry content was a complex diagram. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students were in each group. The results were consistent with modality theory and students who were in the audio-visual-flashing group performed better then the visual-visual group, and no differences were found between visual-visual group and the audio-visual group. Therefore for high search materials, the dual presentation mode increased performance when a visual reference was provided. The third experiment focused on low search. In this experiment the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who had not been taught parallel lines in geometry. The groups included visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, and ten students were in each group. The procedure was similar to the first experiment however the geometry content was a low search diagram and only contained two labels. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students in each group. The results revealed that the modality effect did occur with the transfer problems and the visual-visual group took more time than the audio-visual and the audio-visual-flashing group. The difference was that with the low search content the audio-visual group performed better than the visual-visual group meaning, low search materials the flashing indicator is not as beneficial. The three experiments had demonstrated that using mixed modes of presenta tion increases the effectiveness of the working memory and capacity for learning. The results indicated that when content requires a high level of search, visual indicators need to be included to free up cognitive resources and increase memory capacity. Therefore, based on the work of Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) when the computer multimedia presentations were created with a visual cue of a yellow box with a red outline was used as a visual indicator to assist users to locate where the mouse is clicking so students are not scanning the entire video screen for the mouse. In addition to visual references one version of the video included audio only and another version will contain text only to confirm the modality effect. Selecting the most appropriate part of the working memory to disseminate the information and using the auditory channel to process information via audio instead of visual text allows the visual channel to use the working memory to focus on the images and animations that coincide with the audio. It is similar to watching a news program on television, your ears are listening to the news anchor and the working memory is processing that information while your eyes are watching the corresponding footage and the brain it combining the two pieces of information together. However if put closed captioning on you are reading the same information you are hearing which is redundant. Redundancy Effect Redundancy effect can be defined as information being presented appears as both an image and as on-screen text, and the visual channel is responsible for all information while the audio channel is not used (Mayer, 2001; Barron Calandra, 2003). The distinction between the split-attention and redundancy effects hinges on the distinction between sources of information that are intelligible in isolation and those that are not. If a diagram and the concepts of functions it represents are sufficiently self-contained and intelligibly in isolation, then any text explaining the diagram is redundant and should be omitted in order to reduce the cognitive load (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998). Redundancy can occur with full text and full audio, full text and partial audio or partial text and full audio (Barron Calandra, 2003). The redundant information may be duplicate text and narration, a text description and a diagram or on-screen text and audio narration. The duplicate information cause s in increase in the learners working memory because the visual channel is processing the same information from multiple sources. (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998; Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001). The redundancy effect is evident when student performance is hindered when redundant information is present, and student performance increase when the redundant information is removed (Kalyuga et all, 1998; Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001; Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). The redundancy effect can be eliminated by presenting on-screen text as narration or presenting information as a diagram instead of a lengthy text explanation, and delivering information in a single mode that works complimentary with the other content be delivered (Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001). Several experiments have been conducted relating to redundancy theory. One experiment conducted by Jamet and Le Boec, 2007 was designed to test the hypothesis that redundancy effect would be observed with full text and narration, and presenting sequential text would reduce the redundancy effect. The experiment had 90 undergraduate students from a psychology pool in France, with a median age of 20. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups; no text, full text with corresponding audio, and sequential text. The experiment started with a prior knowledge test with four general questions and two specific questions. Then the participants viewed three documents about memory functioning, the presentation lasted about 11 minutes. After the presentation the participants took a retention test twelve open-ended questions. Then they took a transfer test with twelve inferential open-ended questions. Finally, the participants had to complete a diagram by labeling components. Results revealed significance difference with the retention scores with the no-text group performing better than the full-text group and the sequential text group. Similar results were reported for the diagram completion portion of the experiment and the transfer task. There was no significant effect size to indicate that the redundancy effect would be reduced by presenting redundant text sequentially. There was a significant effect between the no-text and the other two groups for the transfer, retention, and the diagram test which validates the redundancy effect. Based on the findings from the experiment above, having on-screen text in addition to narration overloads the visual channel and decreases learning. The authors did point out that the participants had a difficult time understanding the documents presented and they could not control the presentation. Another set of experiments were conducted by Mayer and Johnson, 2008 to test the redundancy theory. The first experiment focused on short redundant text that was display on-screen.